Israeli – Hamas war

A comment, regarding the theory of unified tribal response

Preface

The idea behind this post, isn’t new and won’t be “news” to anyone acquainted with philosophy, psychology or sociology. It may however provide grist for discussion and perhaps, stimulate someone with greater ability than mine, to lead a fruitful discussion.

I wrote it on November 7th, 2023, prior to joining SUBSTACK: it was written as a reminder of the origins of tribal emotion, not as a comment on the current struggle between Israel and Hamas and especially, not as a political statement.

Now, in August 2025, the “war” continues: both sides have legitimate claims to sovereignty and legitimate cause for complaint; but without declaring right or wrong, it is high time that both sides reach the conclusion that “enough is enough!”

The Controversy

The controversy regarding Israel’s right to defend itself, vs. the Palestinians’ complaints of discrimination and underprivileged status, Continues to be a conversational “hot potato”. Each side finds it difficult to appreciate the other’s attitude and reactions.

Obviously, without detailing one argument or the other, a disconnect exists: an instinctual, reflexive, psychological “knee-jerk response”, which renders each unable to understand the other, or to appreciate the reasons for their opponents’ inability to see their point of view.

Perhaps, in the name of mutual understanding, we should examine the reasons for our failure to reason; but such examination would necessitate protracted explanation, inevitably leading to further argument. It might be as well therefore, simply to provide an example and perhaps an explanation, of the origins of unified tribal response.

An Example Minimises Discussion

Sometimes, example saves discussion. Below, paraphrased for brevity, is an excerpt from my Sci-Fi novel, entitled “XCRATH!, penned in 1998.

Background to the story

A human spaceship has landed on what appears to be an ideal planet, which turns out to have been colonized previously by the XCRATH, a hyper-intelligent, insectiform, almost superhuman race.
After more than half a year, all is going well. Inter-species communication and mutual cooperation are progressing; but suddenly another spaceship appears, bearing a small group from a rival tribe, the XCRATH’s ancient enemy, the XCRAEET.

Xcinintorr, the Master of the invaded region, seeks advice from his Guru.

The Excerpt

Xcnintorr closed the door behind him and, bowing to the elder of all elders, said, “Greetings, father of my father’s father! I need your wisdom.”

“Greetings, leader of our house.” replied the old one. “Welcome to my space.
I observed your battle with the aliens: you maneuvered well, but I feared for you. They are quick and strong: they are truly awesome.”

“It is a pity that they are our mortal enemies,” said Xcnintorr.

“That is a mature perception,” said the ancient one. “Perhaps we Xcrath and Xcraeet do not need to remain enemies; there is no good reason to continue our ancestors’ feuds, four thousand years later.”

“Guide me, Great Grandfather!” said the Master of house seven. “My anger rises, unbidden, as my enemies approach. My mouth says things my mind has not directed. I speak the old language reflexively. I cannot think. I am possessed!”

“Our history runs deep,” the sage replied. “In the passage of consciousness to her child, a mother gives her own memories in detail, with her individual experiences woven like threads upon the base of her emotional responses.
Her own mother’s memories are passed on in lesser detail; but on a firmer base of feeling, and so on. Each preceding generation’s memories are represented less vividly, but with greater emotion. That is why the strongest loves and fears and angers of our ancient past mislead our deepest consciousness, to uncontrolled emotion”.

“I had not taken that line of thought,” admitted Xcnintorr.

Unified tribal response

“The community of elders has always been aware of the trait. It is the basis of the theory of unified tribal response,” the elder continued. “it is the reason for our recommendation that siblings be placed in separate houses. The principle is well known and universally accepted, but never before did we have so graphic a demonstration of its truth. Your confrontation with the aliens was exquisitely interesting.”

“I am happy to have provided my esteemed elders with some small diversion,” said Xcnintorr, wryly. “I have a basic understanding of the theory; but I would benefit from detail, sire.”

“I am sure that you understand it as well as I do: it isn’t complicated,” the elder replied. “But since you ask, we theorise that the more ancient the memory, the more basic and unadulterated the emotion engendered. Thus, the most distant events produce pure feelings of love or hate, despair or joy: the purer the passion, the more uniform is its expression by all members of the tribe. For this reason, a group uniformly exhibits identical responses to ancient stimuli. Music, especially the drumbeat, is a prime example. Need I say more?”

Xcnintorr rose, and bowed, saying softly: “I thank you, Xcmorn, for your insight. I hear you clearly. Understanding is the basis of reform: mutual understanding is the solution, the salvation, for our children’s children”.

“Exactly!”, Xcmorn replied.

There, in a nutshell, is the “disconnect”

Perhaps if everyone understood the origin of uniform tribal emotion, it would be easier to see our opponents’ point of view. If we could, the chronic angst which ruins the life-experience of so many of us would be relieved. In my view, a civil means of resolving conflict, both international and interpersonal, would at once banish collective anxiety and eliminate the individual’s stress – that stress which predisposes all to illness.

the specter of war and relieve the stress which makes so many of us ill!

New treatment for Alzheimer’s

Or maybe, alternatively, Alzheimer’s disease prevention

The deluge of scientific innovations it is still going. We continue to be bombarded with scientific articles, detailing new modifiers and new treatments for Alzheimer’s disease, designed via tremendous effort and produced at stupendous cost: most are ineffective. However occasionally, a report hints at a possible solution.

Encouraging news (? Maybe)

One recent effort, regarding “”ALZ-801”, otherwise known as “Valitramiprosate”, was posted by Steve Bryson, PhD, in “Alzheimer’s news today”, on 22 September, 2023. At that time, Dr. Bryson reported a reduction of serum beta-amyloid and tau by 4%, with slowing of shrinkage of the hippocampus by 28% and a significantly reduced rate of cognitive decline.

A “Phase 3 topline readout in 3Q 2024” has now been announced.

Now, following a two-year safety and efficacy trial in 84 adults with early, APOE4-positive Alzheimer’s, Valitramiprosate has been reported by ALZHEON, as “Potentially the first oral disease-modifying treatment for Alzheimer’s disease, with no increased risk of ARIA (Amyloid-Related Imaging Abnormalities)”.

The company’s claim:

“Valitramiprosate is well differentiated from plaque-clearing antibodies, due to its novel mechanism of action, oral administration and potential efficacy in a genetically targeted population: it could be the first oral disease modifying drugs for Alzheimer’s disease”.

Valitramiprosate is now entering a phase 3 trial, culminating at the end of August 2024, which (if successful) will make it available to APOE4 carriers, “Over 13 million patients!”, for AD prevention.

Encouraging news, but the elephant is still in the room

Why is this elephant always in the room?

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Brain Fog: Joe Biden's problem?

Brain Fog is stress-related and temporary

Quito: there is a medium-sized city in there, but you can’t see it, for the fog

Consider President Joe Biden’s lapse in these terms:

High-grade stress, including the “cruel and unusual” stress of a week of preparation for a momentous, 90 minute debate, must have caused considerable stress-related cortisol release: perhaps enough to produce Hypercortisolemia.

That being the case, Hypercortisolemia would have resulted in the blockade of Deiodinase 1, with resultant cessation of T3 production within his peripheral cells (D1 converts thyroid hormone, T4, to T3).

Hypercortisolemia would also have activated Deiodinase 3: D3 converts T4 into nonfunctional “reverse T3” and converts pre-existing T3, into T2, which is also nonfunctional. Thus all his cells would have been emptied of T3.

The net result would have been acute-onset Low T3 Syndrome, a hypothyroid state which I refer to as “Intracellular Hypothyroidism“(IH). In this condition, no T3 is made in the cells, so no T3 enters the bloodstream: hence, the “Low T3” moniker.

Intracellular hypothyroidism (“IH”, or Low T3 syndrome, if you prefer that term) presents clinically with severe fatigue, ennui, “fuzzy thinking” (which you might call “brain fog”) and confusion: a state in which an unbelievable apparition, such as Donald Trump, would cause a “Jesus Christ! What can I do about this?” reaction, rather than a “Bugger off! – you’re not real” reaction.

GOOD NEWS, MAYBE (!?!)

A blood test during the period of President Biden’s brain fog would have shown a serum T3 level of <4.0 (perhaps, less than 3.5) picomoles/litre and a reverse T3 of >13Ng/DL, which renders the IH diagnosis “most likely”. If the T3/rT3 ratio were less than 20, IH would have been confirmed – consult the T3/rT3 table, below.

T3/rT3 ratio calculation table T3: in Pmol/L=blue. T3 In NG/DL=vertical yellow. rT3: =horizontal yellow. T3/rT3: Pink = Normal. White diagnoses Intracellular Hypothyroidism

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BRAIN FOG

Confusion, forgetfulness, a lack of focus and reduced mental clarity

BRAIN FOG

I don’t know how to describe it, but I’m kinda “foggy”

What is “brain fog”? – A quick perusal of the www. yields more than one hundred posts on the subject, but none is of sufficient clarity to satisfy a would-be “scientist”. Evidently, it is an extremely common condition, because each of the health-related websites has a page devoted to it. However just as evidently, it is an ill-defined condition, which everyone seems to understand, but regarding which no one has a definitive definition.

No one has proven a cause of brain fog and no one, thus far, has been able to provide a solid proposal for eliminating it.

Characteristics of brain fog

Google says “Brain fog is characterized by confusion, forgetfulness and a lack of focus and mental clarity: this can be caused by overworking, lack of sleep, stress and spending too much time on the computer”. It also says “a deficiency in several fields would explain fog, including vitamin D, vitamin B-12, Iron, Omega-3 fatty acids, Magnesium, Vitamin C and Choline”.

Other sources state that the condition is typically characterised by issues like slow or sluggish thinking, difficulty concentrating, distraction and finding it difficult to put your thoughts into words.

Brain fog may interfere with work or school performance, making it more difficult to complete tasks.

Brain Fog is a temporary condition, which can be diagnosed, treated and eliminated.

Is brain fog a medical condition?

  • The Cleveland clinic says “Brain fog” is a term for “a range of symptoms that cause cognitive impairment”, affecting the ability to think clearly, focus, concentrate, remember and pay attention”. It continues: “Like its name, these symptoms cloud the mind and make it difficult to perform routine tasks like holding a conversation, listening to instructions or remembering the steps of something you’re doing.”

  • Everyday health, in what is perhaps, the best statement I found on the web, quotes Shehroo Pudumjee, PhD, a neuropsychologist at the Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health in Las Vegas, who says “Brain fog isn’t something doctors diagnose their patients with. Brain fog is a broad term used to describe some common cognitive symptoms that folks face. These can be varied, but generally center around the idea that your thinking or memory isn’t as efficient or effective as it used to be.”

  • Web MD says that “Brain fog” isn’t a medical condition. Its website suggests that “Some kinds of drugs — over-the-counter and prescribed — can cause brain fog” and it mentions confusion due to chemotherapy, menopause, chronic fatigue syndrome, depression, lack of sleep and various infectious conditions………….

Every other source I found on the web makes a similar statement, with differing terms, various etiologies (causes) and varying lists of symptoms; but none ventures a definitive opinion regarding etiology, investigations or therapy.

Etiology (the cause) of brain fog

On the web,opinions regarding the cause of brain fog, are as diverse and as poorly conceived as the descriptive statements: chronic stress, poor sleep, hormonal changes of menopause, vitamin deficiencies, dietary quirks, illness, chemotherapy, drug reactions, allergic reactions, chronic illness, vitamin deficiencies, heavy metal poisoning etc. are mentioned, but no proof is provided, no investigations are suggested and no therapy is proposed.

Some claim that the condition is related to “anemia, depressiondiabetes, migraine, hypothyroidism, autoimmune diseases, like lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren’s syndrome, and multiple sclerosis, dehydration and viral infections like COVID-19”.

No one however has placed a finger firmly upon any single etiology.

MY OPINION

It is time to sort this out: brain fog is such a ubiquitous complaint and is associated with so many conditions that the cause has to be aberration of some very basic metabolic function, disturbance of which can be triggered by a multiplicity of states and conditions.

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Ode, to the Medical Profession, as it was

A letter to my favourite genius, “Dr. Fred”, the best-informed family “Doc” I ever met: a lament (in which, for smoother wordflow, “he” is equivalent to “she”)

Dear Freddie,

With reference to the “Scandal in Portugal” we were talking about, in which a major percentage of heart failure patients died, essentially because they did not fit the proscribed guidelines: I am moved to write an Ode, or perhaps better, a Requiem, for medicine as we knew it – I hope you will appreciate the words below: please do let me know what you think!

Ode to Medicine, as it was and to my Fellows, as we were

“Medicine” has been intellectualised, theoritised and subjected to experimental, instead of experiential, “evidence”. “Evidence-based medicine” does not require, nor does it encourage, the intelligent analysis of clinical “findings” which we were taught to exercise.

As trainee-doctors, we were inducted into a cadre of free-roaming “lions”: we were kings of our jungle, recognized as such and respected by society for our strength, individualism, wisdom and expertise.

We were lions in our past, but time flies fast and ours has passed photo courtesy of pixabay

We were not Gods

We were not Gods, but we were believed to have a certain power over mysterious things: we were thought to have a magical ability, a flair for problem-solving, a dependable strength and a level of sympathy, empathy and honesty which was rare in our community.

We were respected, loved and blessed and we honoured each other, peer-to-peer. Kudos was accepted, acknowledged and graciously borne: our word, anecdotally supported and proven through experience, was gospel to the mass.

How things have changed!

But things have changed: our paradigm is but a memory!

We are now, to paraphrase Robert Burns, “Wee, Cowering, Timorous Beasties, with a panic in our breasties!
Our self-respect has died, along with our respect and our compassion (one might call it, “brotherly love”) for our peers.
Our camaraderie is no more.

Are we not lions, still?

Why is this? WHERE HAS OUR JUNGLE GONE? Are we not lions, still?

There IS an explanation: individual self-determination has been ground to dust by the inexorable progression of professional organization and the passage of control to central governance by “College” and “Association”, underwritten by big Pharma and overseen by our all-powerful Professional Gaslighter, the “Ministry of Health”.

The bureaucrats have re-drawn and re-defined our once-unlimited stomping grounds and relegated us, each, to his closed corral.

We still are lions, nominally; but we are not Gurus, as we were! Each space is populated by hordes of other would-be lions, many non-, or un-, professional.

Our actions are jealously supervised by legal eagles, each entitled, it would seem, to seize our trophies on a whim.

Our boundaries are marked by bureaucratic bramble, barbed and firm: we dare not breach our limits, for to do so is to risk our all-important “license”.

We are shackled, to (and by) our rules

In this new paradigm, we are shackled by instructions (euphemistically, “guidelines”).
“Evidence-based medicine”, governed by erudite, but clinically inexperienced “scientific investigators”, has taken the place of experience and anecdote. “Guidelines from on high”, the threat of litigation by capricious “clients”, judgement by newscast and eviction by edict have stripped our cloak of mystery.

We can be pilloried for poor handwriting, use of personal symbols in lieu of patients private details and in Ontario, even failure (God forbid!) to write “S.O.A.P.” in patients’ charts!

Our hard-earned clinical wisdom, “unsupported by evidence”, is viewed as suspect.
Our opinions, experience-based and proven in practice, are trashed, as “anecdotal”. Our observations are denied publication and relegated to the garbage heap.

Though we still claim it, our “guru” status has evaporated: kudos is no more: but still, we smile, we keep our noses to the stone, we treat our patients patiently. And, true to form (though curious and incongruous it may seem), we also treat our masters, patiently

In this new-world paradigm, we need not wonder that doctors, “wee, sleekit, cowerin’, timorous beasties” all, in kingdoms progressively invaded by “Nurse Practitioners”, “Knowledgeable Pharmacists” and other Designated Imposters, bend, capitulating to our “Guidelines” (issued from above, by professorial theorists who are short of experience and have no anecdotes to tell).

Follow the guidelines

Of course the modern doctor follows “Guidelines” – he has been trained that way.
Of course he fails to exercise his judgement: based upon experience, unproven by experiment and unsupported by theory, it is inadmissible in a court of law!
Of course he defers to tests and “specialists”: his experience has not been “proven” by ironclad, triple-blinded experiments, designed by scientists who have never seen a patient.
His conclusions and opinions, based on dedication and long hours, bolstered by thousands of interviews with intelligent citizens well able to describe their symptoms, are pooh-poohed by his masters.

Those masters are supported by their bureaucrats, the bureaucrats by politicians, the politicians by the press and the press by the media, all overseen by well-paid legal eagles who “recognise” the Guidelines as proxy “Lion Kings”!

Thus are we lost: too old, too weak, too debilitated, too downtrodden, too exhausted and in the final analysis, too disenchanted, to kick against the pricks!

Ah, So! My Guru, Freddie, Friend – please tell me – what say you?

Aging: Depression and Memory Loss are Linked

An entirely predictable conclusion, but a few important details are missing!

When depressed, he forgets and when his memory fails, he gets depressed

A report, by Eric W. Dolan, June 24, 2024, in “Depression

(Photo credit: Adobe Stock – copied from E.W. Dolan’s article)


A recent study published in JAMA Network Open, was recently reported by by Eric W. Dolan, in the Journal “Depression”, of June 24, 2024.

This study was undertaken to satisfy a query: “It is known that depression and poor memory often occur together in older people, but what comes first has been unclear”.

The researchers studied 8,268, out of 11,391 original participants, who had complete data for cognitive function and depressive symptom assessments and who had been examined every other year from 2002 and 2003 until 2018 and 2019, resulting in a follow-up period of up to 16 years. They came to the unsurprising, inevitable conclusion that there is a bidirectional relationship.

The original article

I read the original article: to give the authors their due, this was a careful and well-thought-out study which, as senior author Dorina Cadar of University College, London, averred, ”shows that the relationship between depression and poor memory cuts both ways, with depressive symptoms preceding memory decline and memory decline linked to subsequent depressive symptoms. It also suggests that interventions to reduce depressive symptoms may help to slow down memory decline.”

Wonderful information!

I am disappointed

However I found it disappointing that, having gone to the trouble of studying 8,268 elders who were known to have some combination of cognitive loss and depression, the authors commented on educational level, financial viability, lifestyle, alcohol/tobacco habits and “allostatic load”, but made no attempt to evaluate the metabolic, vitamin and hormonal milieu in which those carefully documented elders’ brains were functioning.

It would have been nice to know, among other things, what proportion were subject to childhood (or adult) PTSD, what their levels of DHEA, testosterone, progesterone, estradiol and vitamin D were and whether their thyroid balance, glucose and cholesterol management, BMI, kidney and heart function were.
An excellent opportunity was missed!

Why am I wasting your time?

So why am I wasting your time, by reporting a foregone conclusion to which any reasonable adult would apply a huge “So What?” Factor”?

The point here is to encourage you to examine all reports you read, for evidence of attention to metabolic conditions: metabolic aberrations can markedly affect the conclusions reached and ultimately, the value (or the lack of value) of researchers’ opinions.

COMMENT

  • Any (medical) scientific conclusion is liable to error if the metabolic/hormonal status (especially, the thyroid balance) of the study population is unknown.

  • No physical or cognitive function can be adequately assessed in the absence of information as to the physical and metabolic conditions under which that function was exercised: as an example, imagine assessing the physical ability of a group of men, based on a 200-metre race, without taking into account the information that 37% of the runners had had both great toes amputated!

Ergo, here’s my advice

I would advise my young colleagues to add a “hormone profile”, including assessment of DHEA, Testosterone, Estradiol, Progesterone, T3/rT3 ratio, HS CRP and serum Vitamin D (Vitamin D IS a hormone), to the test requisition for all patients who qualify for a lab-test “checkup”. Also, pay close attention to the results and correct any aberrations you find, as part of therapy for whatever condition is diagnosed – your patients will thank you.

CAVEAT

This comment is important in and of itself, but is merely a prelude to a discussion of the more important question: ‘why do we age’, and the most important, ‘is there anything that w can do, to postpone, or ameliorate, aging?

Do You Have Heart Failure Symptoms?

Missed diagnoses reported as “a scandal”, in Portugal

A scandal in Portugal

Today’s missive from “Medscape”, by Liam Davenport, dated 6/17/24, in which study presenter Lisa Anderson, MD, PhD, of the Cardiovascular Clinical Academic Group, Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research Institute, St George’s Hospital, U. London, England, declares “Delays After Test For Suspected Heart Failure A Scandal”.

Only 29% were diagnosed within a year and many, untreated, died.

The original report is from Lisbon, Portugal and the details were explained in a presentation to the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology (HFA ESC) 2024 (available online).

The presentation laments that of almost 8,000 people with HF symptoms, seen in outpatient departments over a five-year period, “about two thirds” had suspected heart failure (HF) and only 29% of patients with suspected heart failure received the diagnosis within a year of being seen. This was because the diagnosis was dependent on NT-proBNP (brain natriuretic peptide) testing, followed “within 40 days”, if positive, by “formal echocardiography and specialist clinician assessment” It seems that no doctor dared to offer treatment based on clinical grounds: treatment was given if the diagnosis had not been confirmed by echocardiography.

On the left, a normal heart– on the right, weak muscles have stretched

The failure to diagnose promptly led to a huge liability to morbidity and mortality.

Notably, Dr. Anderson averred that the diagnosis of heart failure “relies on the presentation of patients with nonspecific signs and symptoms, such as dyspnea and peripheral edema”, but “initiation of lifesaving guideline-directed medical therapy has to wait until we have a formal echocardiography and specialist clinician assessment.”

She added that in the United Kingdom, “We are very proud of our 2- and 6-week pathways,” which stipulate that “suspected heart failure patients with NT-proBNP levels between 400 and 2000 ng/L are to have a specialist assessment and transthoracic echocardiography within 6 weeks and that for those with levels > 2000 ng/L, the interval is accelerated to 2 weeks”.

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CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME

“Low T3 Syndrome”, “Euthyroid Sick Syndrome”, or “Intracellular Hypothyroidism”

I just can’t do anything : I‘m too tired!

In November 2021, I received a paper, by Begoña Ruiz-Núñez, Rabab Tarasse, Emar F Vogelaar, D A Janneke Dijck-Brouwer, Frits A J Muskiet PMID: 29615976, PMCID: PMC5869352, DOI:10.3389/fendo.2018.00097, Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 2018 Mar 20;9:97. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00097. 2018.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5869352/
The paper is entitled “chronic fatigue syndrome: a case control study”: to my amazement, the authors had included reverse T3, the only incontrovertible marker for Intracellular Hypothyroidism, in their report.

ABSTRACT (paraphrased, for brevity and clarity)

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a heterogeneous disease, of unknown cause.
CFS symptoms resemble a hypothyroid state, secondary to chronic inflammation.
We studied 98 CFS patients and 99 age- and sex-matched controls.
We measured parameters of thyroid function, (metabolic) inflammation, gut wall integrity and nutrients influencing thyroid function and/or inflammation.
Remarkably, CFS patients exhibited:
Similar TSH,
Lower free T3 (FT3),
Lower total thyroxine (TT4),
Lower total T3 (TT3),
Lower %TT3 (4.7%),
Lower activity of deiodinases,
Lower secretory capacity of the thyroid gland (14.9%) and
Lower 24-h urinary iodine (27.6%).

The % of reverse T3 (rT3) was higher (13.3%), among the patients and FT3 below the normal range, consistent with the “low T3 syndrome,” was found in 16/98 Chronic Fatigue Syndrome patients, Vs. 7/99 controls.

We also found evidence of low-grade metabolic inflammation (ferritin & HDL-C).
FT3, TT3, TT4, and rT3 correlated positively with HS CRP in CFS patients and controls. TT3 and TT4 were positively related to HS CRP, in controls.
Low T3 and the shift from T3 to rT3 may reflect depressed tissue T3 levels.

The findings in chronic fatigue syndrome patients agree with studies suggesting a hypometabolic state.
They resemble the “non-thyroidal illness syndrome” and “low T3 syndrome” experienced by a subgroup of hypothyroid patients receiving T4 monotherapy.
Our study needs confirmation by others: trials with,T3 and iodide supplements might be indicated.

Keywords: chronic fatigue syndrome, thyroid, “low T3 syndrome”, triiodothyronine, reverse triiodothyronine, urinary iodine, inflammation, high-sensitive C-reactive protein

My COMMENT ON THIS ARTICLE:

This is a truly excellent paper.
It agrees with me, that Chronic Fatigue Syndrome symptoms resemble a hypothyroid state, or at least that there is a relationship between CFS and “Functional (Intracellular) Hypothyroidism“.
It raises the obvious question: can Chronic Fatigue Syndrome be treated? …..

The answer is “yes”! see below.

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